In this section we will look at data collection. There are many methods that a researcher can use to collect the information they need in order to answer their research question and to achieve their aims and objectives. Data collection methods are closely tied to sampling, since the methods used to collect information must be appropriate for the sample that is selected. Some of the methods for collecting data can include:
- Interviews
- Questionnaires and surveys
- Observations
- Focus group discussions
- Delphi method
- Case study
- User-generated data
Interviews:
Interview are commonly used by researchers to explore the views, beliefs and experiences of study participants (Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick. 2008). When using qualitative methods to gather data, interviews can provide an in-depth understanding of participant perspectives. In some cases, it is only through interviews that we are able to get a deeper, more contextually relevant understanding, especially when our participants are the only people to have undergone the experience under investigation.
An example of using an interview to collect data would be a one-on-one interview with patients, asking questions regarding their views on the current government hospitals. In this example, we would need to ensure that the participants we select for our sample have actually been in situations that would enable them to provide some insight into government health services.
Questionnaires and surveys
Another method to gather data is through questionnaires or surveys. In quantitative research, questionnaires and surveys are often the quickest and cheapest way to collect data. The researcher is able to gather data from a large population, which could also serve to make the findings more generalisable (Rowley, 2012). Surveys can be administered in person or by telephone, and can include open- and closed-ended questions. Open-ended questions have no specific answers and invite the respondent to provide an answer in their own words. Closed-ended questions provide a variety of items for respondents to complete. These could be in the form of a Likert scale, visual analogue scale, Yes/No responses or Agree – Disagree. Response rate is an important consideration when conducting reviews because it is important that the number of respondents is high enough for the researcher to be confident that the responses are representative of the larger population. The question of validity and reliability are important considerations when designing a survey.
An example of this might be asking a large sample of students for their feedback on a module when a course or programme is completed. The questions would include a range of different questions so that the researcher could get a broad overview of participant feedback.
Observations
This method of data collection is defined as “the systematic description of events, behaviours, and artifacts in the social setting chosen for study” (Marshall & Rossman, 1989). Observation has the advantage of capturing nonverbal expressions, which may include feelings and the interaction between research participants. It can also be used to measure the time spent on conducting specific tasks, as well as monitoring the method and quality of communication between people (Kawulich, 2005). Oversational research is usually interpretive because it often involves the researcher taking a subjective perspective of something that he or she is looking at. However, observational research can also be quantitative, as when a researcher counts the number of events occuring at a specific place.
An example of this kind of data gathering could be a site visit to a hospital to see how the students interact with their patients and clinical supervisors.
Focus group discussions
Focus group discussions are often conducted after a questionnaire or survey in order to learn more about the phenomenon under investigation. However, they can also be done to establish a context or to inform the design of a questionnaire. Researchers can form groups of six to fifty participants (Kitzinger, 1995), each of which may constitute a single focus group. Focus groups extract information during the group interaction, meaning that the researcher does not ask individuals to answer questions, but rather encourages the participants to speak to other participants after the researcher has provided some kind of stimulus for the discussion. This data collection method is useful for exploring the experiences and knowledge of the participants in ways that the interactions bring our more useful knowledge than that which could be provided by any single individual in the group.
An example of this could be when a researcher conducts a focus group discussion among of persons with a lower limb amputation, where they are asks to speak about the different struggles they have experienced in the community as a result of their surgeries.
Delphi method
A Delphi study is a method of gathering data in order to answer questions that are relatively poorly defined and where the process of moving forward is unclear. It relies on reaching consensus through multiple rounds of discussion in a small group of experts. The researcher establishes the expert group – usually through word of mouth – and asks them to participate in the Delphi. They are then presented with a series of questions and each person responds in detail without knowing what the other participants are contributing. The researcher then summarises all of the responses and then presents them back to the group with follow up questions. After 3 rounds of this the group comes to consensus and provides an outcome to the question for the researcher.
An example where a Delphi method could be useful is when you are interested in developing a new rehabilitation programme in your local region but the established programmes are all designed for implementation in another country with different systems and resources. A Delphi study among local experts could help you to modify the programme so that it is suitable for your context.
Note: The Nominal Group Technique is a similar method of gathering data.
Case study
A case study is a method for gathering data related to an individual, group or phenomenon that is complex, conducted in a local context, and requires an in-depth analysis in order to understand. It is usually qualitative in nature, although a variety of different data gathering methods can be used within the case study. The researcher gathers a lot of rich, subjective information and then tries to understand how it all fits together in order to explain the topic of interest. Case studies enable researchers to explore topics or events in a holistic way.
An example of a case study might be an individual patient whose clinical presentation is different to what was expected. For example, they may not respond to treatment in the way that is suggested and the clinician must then gather a wide variety of data to understand the reasons underlying the different presentation. The case study may also serve to guide alternative treatment options.
User-generated data
With the increase of online and digital activity, researchers are increasingly able to collect information as a result of user-generated data (e.g. online searches, wearables, hyperlink clicks, time on site and many other variables that are automatically generated with user activity).
Mixed methods research
You may also have heard about mixed method research, which is when the researcher can use a combination of both qualitative and quantitative data to explore the topic of interest. Either the quantitative information is used to inform the development of a qualitative approach, or the qualitative data is used to inform the design of a quantative approach.
The video below briefly describes the different types of data collection methods that are available for research purposes.
References
Gill, Stewart, Treasure, & Chadwick. (2008). Methods of data collection in qualitative research: interviews and focus groups. Br Dent J, 204(1476–5373 (Electronic)), 291–295. https://doi.org/10.1038/bdj.2008.192
Kawulich, B.B. (2005). Participant Observation as a Data Collection Method. Qualitative Social Research, 6(2), 1–21.
Kitzinger, J. (1995). Qualitative Research: Introducing focus groups. British Medical Journal, 302(7000), 299–302. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.311.7000.299
Marshall, C. & Rossman, G.B. (1989). Designing qualitative research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Noor, K. B. M. (2008). Case study: A strategic research methodology. American Journal of Applied Sciences, 5(11), 1602–1604. https://doi.org/10.3844/ajassp.2008.1602.1604
Paradis, E., Brien, B. O., Nimmon, L., Bandiera, G., Athina, M., & Martimianakis, T. (2016). Design: Selection of Data Collection Methods. Journal of Graduate Medical Education, 263–264. https://doi.org/http://dx.doi.org/10.4300/JGME-D-16-00098.1
Rowley, J. (2012). Conducting research interviews. Management Research Review, 35(3/4), 260–271. https://doi.org/10.1108/01409171211210154
Stone, D. (1993). Design a questionnaire. BMJ, (307), 1264–1266. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9406(10)60012-0
